Until the Constitution Act of 1982, Indigenous people were considered surplus people[1] who were never intended to be fully engaged in Canadian society. The state and multiple churches colluded to undermine Indigenous identity, governance and land entitlement for numerous generations under the Indian Act and through the establishment of residential and day schools. With the imposition of the colonial binary gender identity and heteronormativity on Indigenous peoples, the historical inclusion of 2Spirit people in families, communities and nations was oppressed and censored. Eventually, the colonial binary construct was instilled as a social norm.

Patriarchy, militarism and masculinity became pronounced in the Indigenous conflicts between and in collaboration with the English and French in Eastern Canada, and through the fur trade in Western Canada. Within this hyper‐masculine and heteronormative culture, “homosexuality” (characterized as sodomy) was illegal and, in some cases, a crime punishable by death. Despite Canada’s legal enforcement of ancient sodomy prohibition laws brought over from Europe, Indigenous peoples protected their 2SLGBTQI+ population to whatever degree they could in rural, on‐reserve, northern and remote communities. However, under the watchful eye of the Indian agents, Catholic priests and nuns, and schoolteachers, any expression of being queer was considered a spiritual corruption, frowned upon and punishable.

Certainly, this historic and intergenerational trauma led to suicides, suicidal ideation and self‐destructive behaviours[2] among 2Spirit people. With no impetus to research or document this phenomenon, we will never know the extent of suicide‐related or trauma‐reactive deaths among 2Spirit people in Canada’s long history.

Women’s oppression and their fight for equal rights are closely aligned with those of 2SLGBTQI+ people. The second‐class status of Canadian women was not addressed until 1929, when the Imperial Privy Council ruled that women were legally “persons” and therefore could hold seats in the Canadian Senate. First Nations women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1960[3] and therefore attained a similar legal status. Under federal and provincial policing of Indigenous midwifery, oral traditions, rites of passage, polygamy, healing sciences and ecosystem management, many important precolonial societal philosophies were undermined, eradicated or taken over by legislation and western institutional policies.

The use of spies and espionage during world conflicts is a well‐known tactic. The post‐World War II paranoia about Cold War espionage and the suspected role of gay men and lesbians resulted in the Lavender Scare in the United States and the LGBT Purge in Canada. During Canada’s Purge era, there were 2Spirit/Indigenous LGBTQI+ First Nations and Inuit people employed in the Canadian Armed Forces, the RCMP and the public service; however, it is unlikely we will ever know how many. It is estimated that about 35 2Spirit people are among the claimants who participated in the LGBT Purge class action lawsuit and settlement process.

The story of the LGBT Purge class action settlement of June 2018 intersects with the earlier Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement of May 2006. Generally, 2Spirit people were already purged[4] from gainful employment in the federal government due to the intergenerational oppression they had experienced in Indian residential and day schools and the homophobia and transphobia in their home communities. Bullying, shaming and violence undermined education goals, and many were forced out of schools before a formal high school education was achieved. Transition into secondary education, employment and a career were out of reach.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2008–2015) failed to acknowledge that the binary gender‐specific framework of Indian residential schools eliminated the diverse gender identities, roles and spaces of 2Spirit people. In this case, the federal government and the commission itself were complicit in purging the experiences of 2Spirit people in the 100‐year history of the schools and failing to describe the cultural and social impacts of this erasure on Indigenous communities.

However, in November 2017, the Prime Minister apologized in the House of Commons for the oppression of 2SLGBTQI+ Canadians in Canada’s colonial history. It was the first time that 2Spirit/Indigenous LGBTQI+ people were recognized and acknowledged as citizens by the state.

The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (2016–2019) accomplished a return to the precolonial inclusion of 2Spirit people in its final report of June 2019. In its 231 Calls to Justice, the report included 32 calls specific to 2SLGBTQQIA+ persons, therefore reclaiming the rightful place of 2Spirit people in history and in contemporary society.

In recent decades, some federal legislation has benefited 2Spirit people. This includes the Civil Marriage Act (same‐sex unions) of July 2005, the application of the Canadian Human Rights Code to First Nations in 2011, and the inclusion of gender‐diverse and 2Spirit people in Canada’s United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act of June 2021. The Women and Gender Equality (WAGE) Department and the MMIWG 2SLGBTQQIA+ National Action Plan of July 2021 have also provided funding to five 2Spirit non‐profit organizations throughout Canada.

According to the 2021 Census, there were 1.8 million Indigenous people in Canada. Of this population, up to 10% — or 180,000 people — could be 2Spirit/Indigenous LGBTQI+. Without research in this area, it is impossible to know whether the estimates should be even higher, possibly as high as 30%. Regardless, Indigenous communities are now decolonizing and making space for their 2Spirit relatives.

The changes, however, must be addressed within a distinctions‐based approach, because LGBTQI+ identities, histories and roles may be perceived differently among First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities. For example, the term “2Spirit,” or “Two‐Spirit,” was introduced and adopted in North America in 1990. However, not all Indigenous LGBTQI+ people ascribe to this identity or label, particularly the Inuit. The Assembly of First Nations, following up on a recommendation to educate First Nations people about 2Spirit people (AFN National HIV/AIDS Strategy, 2001), approved a resolution in July 2018 to establish a national 2Spirit organization and network.

A long‐standing achievement of the 2Spirit liberation movement is the Annual International Two‐Spirit Gathering, which had its inaugural launch in Minneapolis in 1988. The four‐day event is still held in Canada and the U.S. annually on alternating years. This event is one of the longest continuous queer Indigenous liberation and decolonizing events in North American history.

Another intersection that brings the LGBT Purge and 2Spirit activism together is the 2SLGBTQI+ National Monument that will officially open in Ottawa in the summer of 2025. A component of its design by Team Thunderhead from Winnipeg includes a 2Spirit Healing Circle and a traditional plant medicine garden. The monument, called “Thunderhead,” is solely funded by the LGBT Purge Fund.

Finally, in August 2020, the Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR) released its strategy to address racist, sexist and homophobic practices identified in its governance and staffing after a public review. The web page titled Toward Greater Inclusion and Equity: A comprehensive approach to address systemic racism and discrimination includes two recommendations specific to 2Spirit people.

Recommendation 9:

Ensure stakeholder relations continue to include Indigenous communities and that relationships with Black, Indigenous and LGBTQ2+ communities are developed (in particular trans/gender‐diverse and 2S individuals). 

Recommendation 30:

Review Indigenous peoples’ content, Black Canadian content and LGBTQ2+ content (with particular attention to 2S voices).

The CMHR’s LGBT Purge exhibition, Love in a Dangerous Time, speaks about a period of discrimination that has passed into Canadian history. Yet, for 2Spirit people, the danger continues to be ever‐present as the legacy of historical genocidal practices fuels ongoing anti‐Indigenous racism, allegations of not being “the right kind” of LGBTQI+ person, and ostracization from the Indigenous leadership sector. Despite this, 2Spirit people continue to advocate for their inalienable, inherent, First Nation, Inuit and Métis, civil, constitutional and universal rights.

Image at top: A group from the 2‑Spirited People of the 1st Nations marching in a Toronto Pride parade in the 1990s. Photo: 2‑Spirited People of the 1st Nations